As Deepavali arrives, diyas glow across homes, their soft flames flickering gently at every doorstep. The air is scented with fresh flowers and sweet treats, and for a brief moment, the world seems calm and golden. Then, the quiet night bursts alive with the crackle of fireworks.
For many of us, that sound feels inseparable from Diwali, signalling that the celebrations have truly begun. Yet, as the night fades, the sky grows hazy, the air thickens, and the morning feels harder to breathe.
It makes one wonder: how did a festival meant to spread light and joy come to leave behind smoke and silence? When did firecrackers become part of this picture?
For Indians, Diwali has always symbolised togetherness and the triumph of light over darkness. Just as many of us remember singing, “Ram ayenge toh angana sajayenge, deep jala ke Diwali main manaungi,” at its heart, Deepavali celebrates the return of Lord Rama to Ayodhya.
So, how did fireworks find their way into this sacred festival?
Their story begins with trade, and a touch of spectacle.
It is widely believed that gunpowder, invented in China, reached India around the 14th century through traders and travellers.
Initially, it was used in warfare and royal processions.
Historian P. K. Gode wrote that firecrackers “must have come into existence after about 1400 AD, when gunpowder began to be used in Indian warfare.”
Gunpowder technology trickled into India via Central Asia and maritime trade. Once it arrived, fireworks began appearing in royal festivities, though not yet in common folk rituals.
By the 1440s, dazzling displays had already become notable. The Persian envoy Abdur Razzaq, who visited Vijayanagara in 1443, wrote of the Dussera celebrations: “One cannot without entering into great detail mention all the various kinds of pyrotechny and squibs and various other amusements which were exhibited.”
A few decades later, Portuguese chronicler Duarte Barbosa (c.1518) described a Gujarati Brahmin wedding where “firing of bombs and rockets in plenty” was done “for their pleasure.”
This account is cited in The History of Fireworks in India Between AD 1400 and 1900 (1953), where Gode traces the early use of fireworks in social and celebratory events across India.
As Mughal and Deccan courts began using gunpowder for grand pageantry, fireworks became a mark of power. Historian Satish Chandra notes that Adil Shah II of Bijapur (17th century) spent the equivalent of Rs 80,000 on fireworks for a single royal wedding, an enormous sum for that time.
Miniature paintings from the Mughal era depict festivals alive with rockets and lanterns. One notable 17th-century painting shows the wedding procession of Dara Shikoh, eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan, with the night sky lit up by fireworks. Mughal-era fireworks weren’t just decorative, they provided illumination throughout the night-long wedding celebrations. (added bit of context, shah jahan etc)
The Ain-i-Akbari, written by Abu’l Fazl during Akbar’s reign, offers a vivid glimpse into how light and pyrotechnics became woven into the empire’s courtly life. Fazl describes fireworks as symbols of splendour and power, central to royal festivities by the 16th century.
He also notes that Akbar elevated Diwali itself to an imperial celebration. The emperor saw it as “a religious duty and divine praise to worship fire and light,” even as “ignorant men consider this forgetfulness of the Almighty.”
The first organised manufacture of fireworks in India dates back to the colonial era. Historical records mention the first fireworks factory being established in Kolkata in the 1800s.
During the 18th–19th centuries, entrepreneurs realised that India’s abundant saltpetre and dry climate made it ideal for cracker production. In 1923, two brothers from Tamil Nadu: P. Ayya Nadar and Shanmuga Nadar, travelled to Bengal to learn match-making. They returned home and laid the foundation for Sivakasi’s now-famous match and fireworks industry.
They began with match factories and later expanded to fireworks production. The British Explosives Act (1884) and Rules of 1940 formalised the trade by introducing licences. Sivakasi’s first licensed cracker factory opened soon after. From those beginnings, the industry grew rapidly, by 1942 there were just three factories, by 1980 around 189, and today there are nearly 700 across India, most still centred in Sivakasi.
Even in colonial times, Diwali fireworks were not a mass ritual. But by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, urban fairs and celebrations began to include fireworks. In 1820, a historian noted that the “Dewalee” festival involved three days of “feasting, illumination and fireworks.” It slowly transitioned from a royal indulgence to a popular delight.
After Independence, several factors helped make fireworks a staple of Diwali celebrations. The government lifted import restrictions, allowing domestic industries like Sivakasi to thrive. By the 1950s and 60s, with access to raw materials and a growing market, Sivakasi became India’s firecracker hub.
By the 1980s, rising incomes and growing urban celebrations had made bursting firecrackers an integral part of Diwali across India.
In recent decades, however, growing concerns over pollution and health have led to strict regulations. Most regions now allow only “green crackers” with reduced emissions, while excessively loud or highly polluting varieties are banned.
Firecracker use is usually restricted to specific hours, typically between 8 pm and 10 pm, with decibel limits enforced (no more than 125 dB(A) at 4 metres), alongside awareness campaigns highlighting the impact on air quality.
The Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation (PESO) certifies fireworks based on safety and environmental standards. CSIR-developed green crackers: SWAS, SAFAL, and STAR, release water vapour to suppress dust and claim to reduce particulate emissions by 15–40%.
Import of foreign fireworks remains banned, and only licensed manufacturers can produce or sell crackers. Officially, no government body recognises firecrackers as part of ancient tradition; they are considered a modern addition to Diwali festivities.
For many of us, that sound feels inseparable from Diwali, signalling that the celebrations have truly begun. Yet, as the night fades, the sky grows hazy, the air thickens, and the morning feels harder to breathe.
It makes one wonder: how did a festival meant to spread light and joy come to leave behind smoke and silence? When did firecrackers become part of this picture?
For Indians, Diwali has always symbolised togetherness and the triumph of light over darkness. Just as many of us remember singing, “Ram ayenge toh angana sajayenge, deep jala ke Diwali main manaungi,” at its heart, Deepavali celebrates the return of Lord Rama to Ayodhya.
So, how did fireworks find their way into this sacred festival?
Their story begins with trade, and a touch of spectacle.
It is widely believed that gunpowder, invented in China, reached India around the 14th century through traders and travellers.
Initially, it was used in warfare and royal processions.
Historian P. K. Gode wrote that firecrackers “must have come into existence after about 1400 AD, when gunpowder began to be used in Indian warfare.”
Gunpowder technology trickled into India via Central Asia and maritime trade. Once it arrived, fireworks began appearing in royal festivities, though not yet in common folk rituals.
By the 1440s, dazzling displays had already become notable. The Persian envoy Abdur Razzaq, who visited Vijayanagara in 1443, wrote of the Dussera celebrations: “One cannot without entering into great detail mention all the various kinds of pyrotechny and squibs and various other amusements which were exhibited.”
A few decades later, Portuguese chronicler Duarte Barbosa (c.1518) described a Gujarati Brahmin wedding where “firing of bombs and rockets in plenty” was done “for their pleasure.”
This account is cited in The History of Fireworks in India Between AD 1400 and 1900 (1953), where Gode traces the early use of fireworks in social and celebratory events across India.
As Mughal and Deccan courts began using gunpowder for grand pageantry, fireworks became a mark of power. Historian Satish Chandra notes that Adil Shah II of Bijapur (17th century) spent the equivalent of Rs 80,000 on fireworks for a single royal wedding, an enormous sum for that time.
Miniature paintings from the Mughal era depict festivals alive with rockets and lanterns. One notable 17th-century painting shows the wedding procession of Dara Shikoh, eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan, with the night sky lit up by fireworks. Mughal-era fireworks weren’t just decorative, they provided illumination throughout the night-long wedding celebrations. (added bit of context, shah jahan etc)
The Ain-i-Akbari, written by Abu’l Fazl during Akbar’s reign, offers a vivid glimpse into how light and pyrotechnics became woven into the empire’s courtly life. Fazl describes fireworks as symbols of splendour and power, central to royal festivities by the 16th century.
He also notes that Akbar elevated Diwali itself to an imperial celebration. The emperor saw it as “a religious duty and divine praise to worship fire and light,” even as “ignorant men consider this forgetfulness of the Almighty.”
The first organised manufacture of fireworks in India dates back to the colonial era. Historical records mention the first fireworks factory being established in Kolkata in the 1800s.
During the 18th–19th centuries, entrepreneurs realised that India’s abundant saltpetre and dry climate made it ideal for cracker production. In 1923, two brothers from Tamil Nadu: P. Ayya Nadar and Shanmuga Nadar, travelled to Bengal to learn match-making. They returned home and laid the foundation for Sivakasi’s now-famous match and fireworks industry.
They began with match factories and later expanded to fireworks production. The British Explosives Act (1884) and Rules of 1940 formalised the trade by introducing licences. Sivakasi’s first licensed cracker factory opened soon after. From those beginnings, the industry grew rapidly, by 1942 there were just three factories, by 1980 around 189, and today there are nearly 700 across India, most still centred in Sivakasi.
Even in colonial times, Diwali fireworks were not a mass ritual. But by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, urban fairs and celebrations began to include fireworks. In 1820, a historian noted that the “Dewalee” festival involved three days of “feasting, illumination and fireworks.” It slowly transitioned from a royal indulgence to a popular delight.
After Independence, several factors helped make fireworks a staple of Diwali celebrations. The government lifted import restrictions, allowing domestic industries like Sivakasi to thrive. By the 1950s and 60s, with access to raw materials and a growing market, Sivakasi became India’s firecracker hub.
By the 1980s, rising incomes and growing urban celebrations had made bursting firecrackers an integral part of Diwali across India.
In recent decades, however, growing concerns over pollution and health have led to strict regulations. Most regions now allow only “green crackers” with reduced emissions, while excessively loud or highly polluting varieties are banned.
Firecracker use is usually restricted to specific hours, typically between 8 pm and 10 pm, with decibel limits enforced (no more than 125 dB(A) at 4 metres), alongside awareness campaigns highlighting the impact on air quality.
The Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation (PESO) certifies fireworks based on safety and environmental standards. CSIR-developed green crackers: SWAS, SAFAL, and STAR, release water vapour to suppress dust and claim to reduce particulate emissions by 15–40%.
Import of foreign fireworks remains banned, and only licensed manufacturers can produce or sell crackers. Officially, no government body recognises firecrackers as part of ancient tradition; they are considered a modern addition to Diwali festivities.
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